The "Child Welfare" System: What to Know and Where to Go for More

The family policing system generates administrative data at the local, state, and federal levels. This data can be difficult to obtain and interpret, and inconsistent definitions may limit comparability across jurisdictions. Still, there are key sources that journalists can start with to understand how many families are investigated each year, the stated reasons for and outcomes of those investigations, and the demographics of those impacted. 

Importantly, data integrity varies widely and most existing data are self-reported by the family policing system itself. Journalists should speak with local advocates and practitioners about how reliable they find the information. 

Below are national sources of data: 

• The Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS) is maintained by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). AFCARS data contains mandatory federal reporting information on foster system entries and populations; stated reasons for placement; types of placements; exits from the foster system, including reunification and adoption; and demographics of children in the foster system at the state and national level. A sample AFCARS dashboard is published here. 
• The KIDS COUNT Data Center is maintained by a network of organizations supported by the Annie E. Casey Foundation. In its Safety and Risky Behaviors section, the Data Center includes user-friendly dashboards on child maltreatment and the foster system and breaks down data by characteristics such as age, race, gender, and placement type. This data is largely pulled from the AFCARS.
• The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), which is also maintained by HHS, collects a broader range of voluntary information from states and territories. Child Maltreatment is an annual publication of HHS’ Children’s Bureau that summarizes the NCANDS data for all reporting states and is useful for describing national trends and making state-by-state comparisons. Lags in state reporting and data processing mean that each Child Maltreatment report summarizes data received two years prior.  

Some states and local governments publish high quality data dashboards that are updated monthly. Most of these dashboards include basic operational information, like the number and demographics of children in state custody and investigation and removal statistics. More extensive dashboards may include metrics on whether children were placed with family members or siblings, data on educational quality or medical care, and rates of maltreatment while in state custody. 

Below are examples of state and local governments with strong public data reporting: 

• Florida: Office of Child and Family Well-Being Dashboard
• New Jersey: Child Welfare Data Hub
• North Carolina: Child Welfare Papers/Presentations 
• Texas: CPS Dashboard
• New York City: ACS Data and Analysis
• Additional data is available through the Mayor’s Management Report, The New School’s Center for New York City Affairs, and NYC Family Policy Project.

In addition to these government sources, there are opportunities for journalists to search for reports to state legislatures, grant applications and funder reports, public audits, testimony at removal hearings, and minutes from local social services agency board meetings. These sources are often publicly available and provide insight into the functioning of the family policing system. 

Decades of research document the harmful, long-term impacts of family policing investigations, interventions, and separations on parents and children. Concurrently, a robust and growing body of evidence demonstrates that support-based approaches–such as increased access to public benefits, cash assistance, medical care, childcare, and housing–can be more effective at keeping children safe and families together.

The overwhelming majority of reports and investigations conducted do not result in a finding of maltreatment.  

• According to the Children’s Bureau in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, more than 80% of investigations do not result in a finding of maltreatment. 
• These investigations occur after more than half of reports are “screened out,” meaning that only a very small fraction of the children reported to the family policing system are found to have experienced neglect or abuse. 
• The financial cost of unfounded investigations is substantial. In Monroe County, New York, one study found that each unfounded investigation costs families an average of $433 and costs the state an average of $2,243. 

Family policing cases are often driven by poverty. 

• In 2021, 63% of child removals involved allegations of neglect, 9% involved allegations of inadequate housing, and 36% involved allegations of parental drug use. In contrast, 12% involved allegations of physical abuse and 4% involved allegations of sexual abuse. 
• Families experiencing poverty are met with higher scrutiny and surveillance, with data showing a correlation between poverty and the rate of maltreatment investigations. Counties with higher numbers of families with income below the federal poverty level have a higher rate of maltreatment investigations, while counties with higher family incomes have lower rates of investigations.
• The most reliable economic predictors of system involvement are income loss, housing hardship, and cumulative material hardship. The strongest hardship predictors for investigated neglect reports include food pantry use, difficulty paying rent, cutting meals, receiving public benefits, utility shutoffs, short duration of residence, and inability to receive medical care for a sick family member. 
• Once children are in the foster system, reunification often hinges on costly, time-consuming requirements that can push families deeper into poverty.
• Some states require parents to pay “child support” to reimburse the state for the child’s foster system costs. This practice prolongs family separation, decreases the likelihood of reunification, and increases the likelihood of permanent family separation through the termination of parental rights. 

The family policing system is fraught with bias, with people of color and people with disabilities disproportionately impacted.

• Black, Latine, and Indigenous families experience more investigations, more removals, and longer separations. 
• According to one study, more than half of Black children (53%) will be investigated by the family policing system by the time they turn 18 years old, more than twice the rate of white children (23%).  
• Like neglect, what gets labeled “abuse” is heavily influenced by race and class biases. For example, doctors are more likely to suspect Black parents of abuse than white parents, even when controlling for other factors.
• Research has found that disabled parents are reported to the family policing system at a significantly higher rate. One study found that 19% of children in the foster system were removed from their homes at least in part because their parents were disabled.

Investigations and the threat of family separation alone can be harmful to children and families. 

• Research demonstrates that survivors of domestic violence, low-income mothers, and Black mothers avoid seeking support or conceal hardships when accessing services because of fear that disclosing their experience will lead to a report of child maltreatment. 
• Regardless of the outcome, investigations for child maltreatment are highly intrusive, involving unannounced, repeated home and school visits and body checks.

Separating children from their families harms their health and safety. 

• Removal of children from their parents has detrimental long-term effects on their development due at least in part to the trauma of family separation and high rates of abuse in the foster system. 
• Removing children from their parents has been shown to disrupt critical bonding and attachment, and children who remain at home have better outcomes than children in similar situations who are placed in the foster system.  
• Parents whose children are removed have greater odds of postpartum depression, anxiety, and overdose.

Removing more children into the foster system is not associated with lower child fatality rates. 

• A 2025 analysis of a decade of national data shows there is no association between placing more children in the foster system and reducing child abuse- or neglect-related death rates. 
• During the COVID-19 shutdowns, family policing interventions naturally decreased because the system had less visibility into families’ lives. Data shows that this reduction does not seem to have had an adverse effect on children; in fact, New York City saw 25% fewer investigations related to child fatalities during several lockdown months compared with the same period in 2019. 
• Child deaths from parental maltreatment are tragic and extremely rare. According to the Children’s Bureau in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, there were 2,000 child deaths from parental maltreatment in 2023, a rate of 2.73 per 100,000 (0.00273%) children in the population.

Children in the foster system face increased risk of harm and death. 

• A recent study found that children in the foster system are 42% more likely to die than children in the general population. 
• The risks of child abuse in congregate placements (such as group homes or other institutions) include unsanitary conditions; medical negligence, lack of medical care, and over-prescription of psychotropic medication; and physical restraint, isolation, and injury. 
• Lawsuits to compensate children who endured physical and sexual harm in the foster system are common. For example:
  • Los Angeles County (2025): The county authorized a $4 billion settlement addressing nearly 7,000 claims of sexual abuse occurring in county-run foster and juvenile facilities.
  • Philadelphia (2012–present): Private entities contracted by the Department of Human Services have faced nearly seventy lawsuits for failures to protect children in their custody, resulting in allegations of burns, beatings, sexual assault, and, in at least fourteen cases, fatalities.
  • Oregon (2023): The Department of Human Services consented to a $40 million settlement for children who suffered sexual and physical abuse while in the foster system. Legal proceedings revealed efforts by the agency to obscure evidence of abuse.
    

Children removed to the foster system are more likely to become houseless, have contact with the criminal legal system, and experience worse health outcomes as adults.  

• In a study of young people impacted by the foster system across three states, between 31% and 46% had been unhoused at least once by age 26.  
• Another survey of youth placed in the foster system in the Midwest found that by age 17 more than half had experienced an arrest, conviction, or incarceration. 
• Adults who were impacted by the foster system as children have a higher risk of chronic health conditions, beyond that which is associated with economic insecurity. 

The family policing system disproportionately targets parents of color and low-income parents for substance use. 

• The frequency with which parental alcohol or drug use was cited as a contributing factor for child removal more than doubled (from 18.5% to 38.9%) between 2000 and 2019. 
• Healthcare providers routinely drug test pregnant people and their newborns without their consent, and report the results to the family policing system. This can lead to the forced separation of a newborn from their birthing parent during a time of critical bonding.
• Despite similar rates of use across races, pregnant people of color and their newborns are dramatically and disproportionately drug tested by their healthcare providers and reported to the family police. 
• New York City data indicates that requiring healthcare providers in public hospitals to obtain informed consent before drug testing pregnant people contributed to a nearly 80% drop in investigations of mothers with newborns for alleged drug use. The decline was even larger (nearly 90%) for Black mothers. At the same time, 30% fewer newborns and infants were removed into the foster system, with no evidence of reduced safety. 
• The practice of drug testing pregnant patients without a specific medical concern is widely opposed by leading medical organizations.

People targeted by the family policing system are not guaranteed the same rights afforded to people targeted by the criminal legal system.

• Unlike police, who must read people their Miranda rights, family policing officials are not required to inform parents of their rights before an investigation.
• Family policing officials are estimated to conduct millions of warrantless searches each year, escaping meaningful Fourth Amendment scrutiny. 
• The Fifth Amendment allows a person charged with a crime to remain silent to avoid self-incrimination. However, in the family policing system, courts are legally permitted to assume the worst of a parent who has decided to remain silent.
• While some states provide an attorney for certain types of family policing hearings, there is no constitutional right to an attorney for family policing cases.  
• In New York City (where parents have the right to speak to an attorney during the investigation period), more than 90% of children remained with their families when their parents were represented by counsel. 
• Another New York City study found that holistic defense offices (teams that include lawyers, social workers, and parent advocates) reunified children with their families 43% more often in the first year of a case compared to parents represented by solo practicing lawyers.
  

There are numerous interventions that have been shown through research to improve child well-being and protect against family policing investigations. 

• Medical care. Numerous studies have shown that expanding Medicaid can reduce reports of neglect and reduce family separations. Medicaid supports parents in getting their physical health, mental health, and substance use treatment needs met, making them better equipped to focus on their child’s growth and development.
• Cash assistance. At least 100 programs across the country are testing the impact of unconditional cash assistance (also called guaranteed income, basic income, or direct cash transfers) on child wellbeing and family safety. One study of cash assistance in Alaska found that payments in the first few months of a child’s life reduce the likelihood of a report to the family policing system by 10%.  
• Public benefits. Studies have established a relationship between public benefits and foster system involvement in families’ lives: spending more on public benefits, increasing the minimum wage, and expanding the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program are all variously associated with fewer hotline calls, substantiated maltreatment, removals, and child fatalities.
• Housing: Studies show that when families receive housing support, fewer children are removed from their home, and those who have been separated are more likely to be reunited. Permanent housing subsidies also reduce family stress, intimate partner violence, school disruptions, and food insecurity—all of which reduce the risk of family policing involvement.
• Childcare: Expanding access to childcare–including through childcare subsidies and Head Start programs–reduces reports of child maltreatment, family separations, and child fatalities. One study finds that an additional $1,000 spent by states on childcare assistance per person living in poverty is associated with a reduction of 40% in hotline calls, 35% in substantiated maltreatment, 63% in removals, and 50% in child fatalities categorized as due to maltreatment.

Journalists have an outsized impact on public understanding and public policy related to child safety and the family policing system. This responsibility requires careful attention to language and framing, a strong grounding in data and research, and a commitment to including the voices of children and families that have been impacted by the system. For journalists who are interested in taking a more nuanced and accurate approach to covering child safety issues, we recommend the following.

• Investigate the role of poverty in family policing cases: Many family policing investigations begin with unmet material needs such as housing insecurity, food scarcity, or lack of childcare. What circumstances are categorized as “neglect” in your area? What are the consequences on families? 
• When families need housing, Georgia will pay for foster care rather than provide assistance by Stephannie Stokes, WABE
• “Nobody Blames the Landlord. They Just Take Away the Kids.” by Bryce Covert, The Nation 

• Explore support-based family safety solutions: Investigate the connection between public assistance programs and family safety, with particular attention to direct, no strings attached cash support. Are there pilot programs in your community? If not, what barriers exist to building these support-based solutions? 
• A guaranteed income program has been life-changing for Philly moms. If expanded, it could change lives in Germantown by Danielle Smith, Resolve Philly
• Guaranteed income programs aim to uplift Black mothers, trans people, and more by Thalia Charles, Prism

• Identify advocacy efforts to address the system’s harms, especially those led by directly impacted people: Organizations, coalitions, and collectives led by people who have experienced the family policing system firsthand are shaping advocacy efforts to limit its reach and reduce harm. These groups are advancing campaigns grounded in lived experience and community knowledge. What initiatives are families and directly impacted leaders organizing in your area? How are they influencing local policy or practice?
• Ahead of City Council hearing, councilmember hears concerns about foster care system by Steve Volk, BillyPenn
• 'Deluged' child welfare systems struggle to protect kids amid calls for reform by Olivia Hampton, National Public Radio  

• Examine the legal protections that are available–or unavailable–to families: Investigate what protections exist for families investigated by the system and how they vary across jurisdictions. Do parents/guardians have access to legal representation during the investigation phase and/or after a case is filed in court? Is that representation meaningful? Do differences in available legal protections affect outcomes for children and parents?
  • Uneven legal representation for Missouri parents leaves kids languishing in foster care by Clara Bates, Missouri Independent
  • In Child Welfare Cases, Most of Your Constitutional Rights Don’t Apply by Eli Hager, ProPublica 

• Pay attention to racial, class, and geographic disparities: Journalists can use data to uncover racial, socioeconomic, and geographic disparities in reports, investigations, and family separations. What counties or regions have very high rates of family policing involvement? What systemic factors are driving these disparities?
  • For Black Families in Phoenix, Child Welfare Investigations Are a Constant Threat By Eli Hager, Agnel Philip, and Hannah Rappleye, NBC News & ProPublica
  • Is N.Y.’s Child Welfare System Racist? Some of Its Own Workers Say Yes. by Andy Newman, New York Times 

• Interrogate ties to other systems: Examine how the family policing system interacts with other government systems, including the criminal legal, immigration, and housing systems, and with structures that criminalize substance use, pregnancy outcomes, poverty, and other circumstances. How does interaction with one system increase a family’s risk of interaction with another? 
• Tens of Thousands of Mothers Were Flagged to Police Over Flawed Drug Tests at Childbirth by Shoshana Walter and Jill Castellano, The Marshall Project  
• Since Dobbs, Idaho mothers increasingly accused of child abuse while pregnant by Kelsey Turner, Investigate West 

• Explore the negative impact of family separation: Forced family separation has long term impacts on the health, safety, and economic stability of parents and children. How does the lived experience of families in your community compare with what many believe keeps children safe? 
• Philly removes neglected children from homes to keep them safe. But they often face worse abuse in foster care placements by Steve Volk, The Philadelphia Inquirer
• ‘Really horrifying’: Missouri draws scorn over treatment of teen mom in foster care by Anna Spoerre, Missouri Independent

• Explore the negative impact of investigations: Regardless of the outcome, investigations are highly intrusive, involving unannounced home visits and body checks. What happens to families that experience these investigations and are left to pick up the pieces after the family policing system moves on? 
• Child Welfare Officials Have Searched Her Home and Her Son Dozens of Times. She’s Suing Them to Stop by Eli Hager, ProPublica
• Child Abuse Investigators Traumatize Families, Lawsuit Charges by Jonah E. Bromwich and Andy Newman, New York Times 

• Document surveillance practices: Examine how fear of family policing may deter parents and young people from seeking critical services, such as healthcare, domestic violence support, or school counseling–or disrupt their connection to these supports. How does the fear of a family policing case change engagement with supportive services in your community? What is the impact on child, parent, and family health and safety? 
• Mandatory Reporting Was Supposed to Stop Severe Child Abuse. It Punishes Poor Families Instead by Mike Hixenbaugh and Suzy Khimm, NBC News, and Agnel Philip, ProPublica
• Revolt Against Mandatory Reporting Law Rises Among Professionals Required to Protect Children by Rachel Blustain, The City NYC

• Follow the money: Track how public dollars flow to private agencies and nonprofits involved in the foster system, monitoring of families, or mandated services, and find out what outcomes these organizations are accountable for. How much does your state spend on the foster system compared to the money it spends directly supporting families under investigation? 
• The Government Spends 10 Times More on Foster Care and Adoption Than Reuniting Families by Elizabeth Brico, Talk Poverty

The experts listed below contributed to this brief and/or to research cited throughout. Each is available to speak with reporters about the family policing system and the recommendations made herein. 

Visit Movement for Family Power’s Movement Map to find additional organizations and spokespeople working on these issues.

See below for resources designed to help journalists navigate some of the key challenges and opportunities that come with covering child safety and the family policing system.

• Language and Terminology Guide: A list of terms to avoid and alternatives to consider. 
• Sourcing Considerations: Tips for building relationships with directly impacted sources and context to consider when working with institutional sources. 
• Reframing Common Stories: Recommendations for rethinking your approach to stories about child safety, including the deaths of children at home and in the foster system. 

Acknowledgements

Thank you to all who contributed to this brief, including primary authors Erin Miles Cloud, Sarah Duggan, and Robert Latham. This work was produced in collaboration with Civil Rights Corps, Movement for Family Power, and the University of Miami School of Law Children & Youth Families Clinic.